---
title: "Alternatives to rare-earth actuators"
description: "Every serious alternative to the NdFeB-magnet electric actuator: rare-earth-free motors, artificial muscles, hydraulic drives and transmissions, with cited readiness, market size and growth, dated deployments and how each works inside."
canonical: https://actuatorlist.com/alts
last-updated: 2026-11-03
---
# Alternatives to rare-earth actuators

19 alternatives to the NdFeB permanent magnet electric actuator in four families: rare-earth-free motors, artificial muscles, hydraulic drives and transmissions. Today's baseline holds about ~2-4.5 kg[^57] (estimate, 2026) of NdFeB magnet per humanoid robot; see [/metals](https://actuatorlist.com/metals.md) for where it comes from. As of November 2026. Interactive page: https://actuatorlist.com/alts (deep link `?tech=<id>`). JSON: https://actuatorlist.com/api/v1/alts.

## Technologies

Density is specific power (W/kg) for muscles and motors, or torque density (Nm/kg) where only that is published. TRL is our reading of the cited evidence (model). Milestone years are the earliest dated evidence we cite; the event may be earlier. "n/a" means no public source.

| Technology | Family | Principle | TRL | Density | Efficiency | Magnets, REE | Milestones |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| [Induction motor](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=induction) (`induction`) | Rare-earth-free motors | A rotating stator field induces currents in rotor bars; the induced field drags the rotor round. No magnets.[^1][^2] | 9[^2] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | 87%[^2] | No magnets | Lab demo 1888[^1] |
| [Switched reluctance motor](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=switched-reluctance) (`switched-reluctance`) | Rare-earth-free motors | Stator coils fire in sequence; plain steel rotor teeth snap to the nearest energised pole. No magnets, no rotor copper.[^3][^4] | 9[^4][^5] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | No magnets | Volume 2009[^4] |
| [Synchronous reluctance motor](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=synchronous-reluctance) (`synchronous-reluctance`) | Rare-earth-free motors | Air slots in the rotor laminations make one direction easy for flux; the rotor locks to the rotating field.[^6][^7] | 9[^6][^7] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | No magnets, 0 kg/kW[^6] | First product 2011[^6] |
| [Ferrite permanent magnet motor](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=ferrite-pm) (`ferrite-pm`) | Rare-earth-free motors | Cheap iron-oxide magnets in spokes or deep slots concentrate flux to make up for their weaker field.[^8][^9] | 6[^8][^9] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Ferrite magnets, 0 kg/kW[^9] | Lab demo 2023[^8] |
| [Wound-field synchronous motor](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=wound-field) (`wound-field`) | Rare-earth-free motors | Copper coils on the rotor, fed DC through slip rings, replace the magnets; field strength becomes adjustable.[^10][^11][^12] | 9[^10][^12] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | No magnets, 0 kg/kW[^12] | First product 2011[^10]; Volume 2012[^10] |
| [Axial-flux motor (ferrite)](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=axial-flux) (`axial-flux`) | Rare-earth-free motors | Flux runs along the shaft between flat rotor discs and a stator; the large magnet face suits weaker ferrite.[^13][^14][^15] | 7[^13][^14] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Ferrite magnets, 0 kg/kW[^13] | First product 2025[^14] |
| [Iron nitride magnet motor](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=iron-nitride) (`iron-nitride`) | Rare-earth-free motors | A standard permanent magnet rotor with iron nitride magnets, made of iron and nitrogen instead of rare earths.[^16][^17] | 7[^17][^18] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Iron nitride magnets, 0 kg/kW[^18] | First product 2024[^17]; Volume ~2027[^19][^18] (estimate, 2026-11) (announced) |
| [HASEL electrohydraulic muscle](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=hasel) (`hasel`) | Artificial muscles | Voltage zips electrodes on a liquid-filled pouch shut, pushing liquid aside so the pouch bulges and shortens.[^20][^21] | 4[^20][^21] (model, 2026-11) | 600 W/kg[^21] | 30%[^21] | No magnets | Lab demo 2018[^20] |
| [Dielectric elastomer actuator](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=dielectric-elastomer) (`dielectric-elastomer`) | Artificial muscles | A soft film between stretchy electrodes is squeezed thin by electrostatic pressure and spreads out sideways.[^22] | 4[^22] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | No magnets | Lab demo 2000[^22] |
| [Twisted and coiled polymer muscle](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=twisted-coiled-polymer) (`twisted-coiled-polymer`) | Artificial muscles | Nylon line twisted until it coils; heating untwists the fibre and the coil pulls shorter.[^23][^24] | 3[^23][^25] (model, 2026-11) | 5300 W/kg[^23] | 0.2%[^25] | No magnets | Lab demo 2014[^23][^24] |
| [Shape memory alloy](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=shape-memory-alloy) (`shape-memory-alloy`) | Artificial muscles | A nickel-titanium wire stretched cold returns to its trained shape when current heats it.[^26][^27] | 9[^28][^27] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | No magnets | Lab demo 1959[^26]; Volume 2024[^28] |
| [Pneumatic McKibben muscle](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=mckibben) (`mckibben`) | Artificial muscles | Air inflates a bladder inside a braided sleeve; the braid widens and the muscle shortens, like a finger trap.[^29][^30] | 9[^29] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Set by its pump or compressor motor | none dated |
| [Hydraulic artificial muscle](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=hydraulic-muscle) (`hydraulic-muscle`) | Artificial muscles | A McKibben-type muscle driven by oil or water at high pressure from a small electric pump.[^30][^31] | 5[^30][^31] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Set by its pump or compressor motor | Lab demo 2017[^30]; First product ~2025[^32] (estimate, 2026-11) (announced) |
| [Servo-hydraulic actuator](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=servo-hydraulic) (`servo-hydraulic`) | Hydraulic and electrohydraulic | A central pump pressurises oil; servo valves meter it into cylinders. Huge force from a small joint.[^33][^34] | 9[^34][^33] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Set by its pump or compressor motor | Lab demo 2013[^33] |
| [Electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA)](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=electrohydrostatic) (`electrohydrostatic`) | Hydraulic and electrohydraulic | Motor, pump, reservoir and cylinder sealed in one unit: hydraulic force, but only wires run to it.[^34][^35] | 9[^34][^36] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Set by its pump or compressor motor | Lab demo 1992[^35]; First product 2005[^34] |
| [Cycloidal reducer](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=cycloidal) (`cycloidal`) | Transmissions | A lobed disc wobbles around a ring of pins and turns back one lobe per input turn: high ratio, shock-tolerant.[^37] | 9[^37][^38] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Depends on its motor | Lab demo 1928[^37]; First product 1931[^39]; Volume 1939[^37] |
| [Cable and capstan drive](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=cable-capstan) (`cable-capstan`) | Transmissions | Cable wrapped on a small drum turns a large one; the diameter ratio is the gear ratio, without backlash.[^40] | 9[^40] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Depends on its motor | First product 1990[^40] |
| [Planetary roller screw](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=roller-screw) (`roller-screw`) | Transmissions | Threaded rollers orbit between screw and nut, so many lines carry load where a ball screw has a few points.[^41][^42] | 9[^41] (model, 2026-11) | n/a | n/a | Depends on its motor | none dated |
| [Magnetic gear](https://actuatorlist.com/alts?tech=magnetic-gear) (`magnetic-gear`) | Transmissions | Two magnet rings with different pole counts couple through steel pole pieces: torque without touching teeth.[^43][^44] | 6[^43][^45] (model, 2026-11) | ~30 Nm/kg[^45] (estimate, 2022) | ~99%[^46] (estimate, 2024-04) | Permanent magnets | Lab demo 2001[^43] |

### Rare-earth-free motors

#### Induction motor (`induction`)

A rotating stator field induces currents in rotor bars; the induced field drags the rotor round. No magnets.[^1][^2]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^2] (model, 2026-11). Sold at scale for over a century; Tesla built its first cars on induction motors.
- Companies: ABB Robotics, Tesla.
- Under the hood: Induction motor with a squirrel-cage rotor.

#### Switched reluctance motor (`switched-reluctance`)

Stator coils fire in sequence; plain steel rotor teeth snap to the nearest energised pole. No magnets, no rotor copper.[^3][^4]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^4][^5] (model, 2026-11). In consumer products since Dyson's digital motors and in building HVAC retrofits.
- Companies: Turntide Technologies.
- Dyson DDM V2 speed: 104000 rpm[^4].
- Under the hood: Switched reluctance rotor stepping as phases fire.

#### Synchronous reluctance motor (`synchronous-reluctance`)

Air slots in the rotor laminations make one direction easy for flux; the rotor locks to the rotating field.[^6][^7]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^6][^7] (model, 2026-11). ABB has sold SynRM motor and drive packages since 2011 and launched an IE6 range in 2024.
- Companies: ABB Robotics.
- Under the hood: Synchronous reluctance rotor with flux barriers.

#### Ferrite permanent magnet motor (`ferrite-pm`)

Cheap iron-oxide magnets in spokes or deep slots concentrate flux to make up for their weaker field.[^8][^9]

- Readiness: TRL 6[^8][^9] (model, 2026-11). Ferrite motors are everyday parts in small machines; at traction power they are at prototype stage, with Tesla's announced rare-earth-free motor not yet confirmed in production.
- Companies: Proterial, Tesla.
- Prototype output: 100 kW[^8].
- Under the hood: Spoke rotor with ferrite magnets.

#### Wound-field synchronous motor (`wound-field`)

Copper coils on the rotor, fed DC through slip rings, replace the magnets; field strength becomes adjustable.[^10][^11][^12]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^10][^12] (model, 2026-11). In series production cars since Renault's Kangoo Z.E. and Zoe and BMW's fifth-generation eDrive.
- Companies: Renault Group, BMW Group.
- Zoe peak power: 65 kW[^11].
- Zoe torque: 220 Nm[^11].
- iX3 motor power: 210 kW[^12].
- Under the hood: Wound-field rotor fed through slip rings.

#### Axial-flux motor (ferrite) (`axial-flux`)

Flux runs along the shaft between flat rotor discs and a stator; the large magnet face suits weaker ferrite.[^13][^14][^15]

- Readiness: TRL 7[^13][^14] (model, 2026-11). Ferrite axial-flux hub motors entered low-volume production in 2025; NdFeB axial-flux motors are further along but are not rare-earth-free.
- Companies: Conifer.
- Conifer seed round: $20M[^13].
- Under the hood: Axial-flux motor: twin rotor discs around a stator.

#### Iron nitride magnet motor (`iron-nitride`)

A standard permanent magnet rotor with iron nitride magnets, made of iron and nitrogen instead of rare earths.[^16][^17]

- Readiness: TRL 7[^17][^18] (model, 2026-11). The magnet is made on a commercial pilot line; volume production is announced, not running.
- Companies: Niron Magnetics.
- Planned capacity: ~1.5 kt/yr[^19] (estimate, 2025).
- Under the hood: Swapping NdFeB for iron nitride magnets on one rotor.

### Artificial muscles

#### HASEL electrohydraulic muscle (`hasel`)

Voltage zips electrodes on a liquid-filled pouch shut, pushing liquid aside so the pouch bulges and shortens.[^20][^21]

- Readiness: TRL 4[^20][^21] (model, 2026-11). Published in Science in 2018 and spun out into Artimus Robotics the same year; no volume product cited.
- Companies: Artimus Robotics.
- Toolkit specific power: 150 W/kg[^47].
- Under the hood: HASEL pouch: electrodes zip, liquid bulges, the pouch shortens.

#### Dielectric elastomer actuator (`dielectric-elastomer`)

A soft film between stretchy electrodes is squeezed thin by electrostatic pressure and spreads out sideways.[^22]

- Readiness: TRL 4[^22] (model, 2026-11). Lab demonstrations since 2000; no shipping actuator product cited here.
- Strain, lower bound: 100%[^22].
- Under the hood: Dielectric elastomer stack squeezed thin by the field.

#### Twisted and coiled polymer muscle (`twisted-coiled-polymer`)

Nylon line twisted until it coils; heating untwists the fibre and the coil pulls shorter.[^23][^24]

- Readiness: TRL 3[^23][^25] (model, 2026-11). Lab stage since 2014; low efficiency limits use.
- Contraction: 49%[^23].
- Under the hood: Coiled nylon fibre contracting when heated.

#### Shape memory alloy (`shape-memory-alloy`)

A nickel-titanium wire stretched cold returns to its trained shape when current heats it.[^26][^27]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^28][^27] (model, 2026-11). SMA camera actuators ship in tens of millions of phones.
- Companies: Cambridge Mechatronics.
- Phones shipped with CML SMA: ~70M[^28] (estimate, 2024-02).
- Under the hood: Shape memory alloy spring snapping back when heated.

#### Pneumatic McKibben muscle (`mckibben`)

Air inflates a bladder inside a braided sleeve; the braid widens and the muscle shortens, like a finger trap.[^29][^30]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^29] (model, 2026-11). Festo sells the Fluidic Muscle as a catalogue product.
- Companies: Festo.
- Usual air pressure: 0.3-0.6 MPa[^30].
- Under the hood: McKibben muscle: pressure widens the braid and shortens it.

#### Hydraulic artificial muscle (`hydraulic-muscle`)

A McKibben-type muscle driven by oil or water at high pressure from a small electric pump.[^30][^31]

- Readiness: TRL 5[^30][^31] (model, 2026-11). Lab prototypes since 2017 and a 1,000-muscle android demo in 2025; production units announced.
- Contraction force: 7000 N[^30].
- Muscles in Protoclone: 1k[^31].
- Under the hood: Hydraulic artificial muscle driven by an electric pump.

### Hydraulic and electrohydraulic

#### Servo-hydraulic actuator (`servo-hydraulic`)

A central pump pressurises oil; servo valves meter it into cylinders. Huge force from a small joint.[^33][^34]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^34][^33] (model, 2026-11). Standard in aircraft and heavy machinery; in humanoids the hydraulic Atlas was retired in 2024 for an electric one.
- Companies: Boston Dynamics.
- Under the hood: Servo-hydraulic joint: pump, servo valve, cylinder.

#### Electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA) (`electrohydrostatic`)

Motor, pump, reservoir and cylinder sealed in one unit: hydraulic force, but only wires run to it.[^34][^35]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^34][^36] (model, 2026-11). Flying in primary flight controls on the A380, and standard on the A350 and A400M.
- Under the hood: Electro-hydrostatic actuator: a self-contained unit.

### Transmissions

#### Cycloidal reducer (`cycloidal`)

A lobed disc wobbles around a ring of pins and turns back one lobe per input turn: high ratio, shock-tolerant.[^37]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^37][^38] (model, 2026-11). Made since the 1930s; RV-type cycloidal gears sit in most industrial robot joints.
- Companies: Nabtesco, Sumitomo Heavy Industries.
- Nabtesco robot-joint share: ~60%[^38] (estimate, 2026).
- Under the hood: Cycloid disc wobbling on its pins.

#### Cable and capstan drive (`cable-capstan`)

Cable wrapped on a small drum turns a large one; the diameter ratio is the gear ratio, without backlash.[^40]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^40] (model, 2026-11). Barrett has sold cable-driven WAM arms since 1990.
- Companies: Barrett Technology.
- Under the hood: Capstan drive: a small drum winding a cable on a large one.

#### Planetary roller screw (`roller-screw`)

Threaded rollers orbit between screw and nut, so many lines carry load where a ball screw has a few points.[^41][^42]

- Readiness: TRL 9[^41] (model, 2026-11). Catalogue products for industrial linear actuators; the motor behind it still decides the magnet content.
- Companies: Tesla.
- Load vs ball screw: ~15 x[^41] (estimate, 2026).
- Optimus largest linear: ~8000 N[^42] (estimate, 2022).
- Under the hood: Ball screw and planetary roller screw side by side.

#### Magnetic gear (`magnetic-gear`)

Two magnet rings with different pole counts couple through steel pole pieces: torque without touching teeth.[^43][^44]

- Readiness: TRL 6[^43][^45] (model, 2026-11). Demonstrator motors and vehicle trials; no volume product cited.
- Companies: Magnomatics.
- Under the hood: Magnetic gear: a modulator ring between two magnet rings.

## Markets

Each row is one publisher's estimate from the public summary of a paid report. Publishers disagree by several times because each defines its market differently; each note gives the spread we saw. Technologies with no published market have no row.

| Market | Technologies | Size | Growth a year | Largest end market (our class) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Induction motors | `induction` | ~$23.4B[^48] (estimate, 2024): Per IMARC; other publishers put 2024 between about $16B and $26B. | ~7%[^48] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, 2025 to 2033. | Industrial machines and arms |
| Hydraulic actuators | `servo-hydraulic` | ~$3.14B[^49] (estimate, 2024): Per Knowledge Sourcing Intelligence; other 2024 figures run from about $1B to $16.5B. | ~4%[^49] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, 2024 to 2029. | Industrial machines and arms |
| Artificial muscles (all types) | `mckibben`, `shape-memory-alloy`, `hasel`, `dielectric-elastomer`, `twisted-coiled-polymer`, `hydraulic-muscle` | ~$1.98B[^50] (estimate, 2024): Per TechSci; other 2024 figures run from about $0.7B to $2.5B. Not split by muscle type. | ~10%[^50] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, to 2030. | Medical and exoskeleton |
| Cycloidal reducers | `cycloidal` | ~$1.46B[^51] (estimate, 2024): Per Intel Market Research; other 2024 figures run from about $0.2B to $1.9B. | ~5%[^51] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, to 2032. | Industrial machines and arms |
| Synchronous reluctance motors | `synchronous-reluctance` | ~$1.26B[^52] (estimate, 2025): Per Report Prime; an industrial-only estimate is about $1.1B for 2025. | ~8%[^52] (estimate, 2025): Forecast compound annual growth, 2025 to 2032. | Industrial machines and arms |
| Electro-hydrostatic actuators | `electrohydrostatic` | ~$1.2B[^53] (estimate, 2024): Per DataHorizzon, the only EHA-specific estimate we found. | ~9%[^53] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, 2025 to 2033. | Other (appliances, aerospace) |
| Switched reluctance motors | `switched-reluctance` | ~$653.5M[^54] (estimate, 2024): Per Market Glass; other publishers put 2024 between about $0.3B and $0.6B. | ~4%[^54] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, 2024 to 2030. | Other (appliances, aerospace) |
| Planetary roller screws | `roller-screw` | ~$610M[^55] (estimate, 2024): Per Transparency Market Research; other 2024 figures run from about $0.4B to $0.9B. | ~6%[^55] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, 2025 to 2035. | Industrial machines and arms |
| Axial-flux motors (all magnet types) | `axial-flux` | ~$240.5M[^56] (estimate, 2024): Per TechSci; mostly NdFeB designs, so it overstates the ferrite share. Other 2024 figures run from about $0.24B to $1.2B. | ~29%[^56] (estimate, 2024): Forecast compound annual growth, to 2030. | Automotive |

## Methodology

- Market size: top-down, one market report per row, quoted as that publisher's estimate. We found no company revenue split by technology, so there is no bottom-up check yet.
- Growth: the same report's forecast compound annual growth rate.
- Readiness: TRL 1 (principle observed) to 9 (proven in volume use), judged from the cited basis.

## Deployments

- 2010, Induction motor: Tesla, Roadster drive: three-phase induction motor with copper rotor (shipping). Palo Alto, California, United States.[^2]
- 2009-06, Switched reluctance motor: Dyson, DC31 handheld vacuum with the DDM V2 digital motor (shipping). Malmesbury, England, United Kingdom.[^4]
- 2021-09-09, Switched reluctance motor: Turntide Technologies, Smart Motor System retrofits for building HVAC (shipping). California, United States.[^5]
- 2011, Synchronous reluctance motor: ABB, SynRM motor and drive packages (shipping). Zurich, Switzerland.[^6]
- 2023, Ferrite permanent magnet motor: Proterial, Ferrite-magnet traction motor prototype above 100 kW (demo). Tokyo, Japan.[^8]
- 2012, Wound-field synchronous motor: Renault, Zoe electric car, wound-rotor motor (shipping). Boulogne-Billancourt, France.[^10][^11]
- 2020-07, Wound-field synchronous motor: BMW Group, iX3, fifth-generation eDrive without rare earths (shipping). Munich, Germany.[^12]
- 2025, Axial-flux motor (ferrite): Conifer, Ferrite axial-flux in-wheel motors for small vehicles (pilot). Pune, India.[^14]
- 2024-10, Iron nitride magnet motor: Niron Magnetics, Commercial pilot plant for iron nitride magnets (pilot). Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States.[^17]
- 2024-02-14, Shape memory alloy: Cambridge Mechatronics, SMA autofocus and stabilisation actuators in smartphones (shipping). Cambridge, England, United Kingdom.[^28]
- 2017-01-26, Hydraulic artificial muscle: Bridgestone and Tokyo Tech, High-power hydraulic McKibben muscle for tough robots (demo). Tokyo, Japan.[^30]
- 2025, Hydraulic artificial muscle: Clone Robotics, Protoclone V1 android with 1,000 Myofiber muscles (demo).[^31]
- 2024-04, Servo-hydraulic actuator: Boston Dynamics, Hydraulic Atlas humanoid, replaced by an electric Atlas (retired). Waltham, Massachusetts, United States.[^33]
- 2005-08-29, Electro-hydrostatic actuator (EHA): Airbus, A380 primary flight controls, two of four channels electric (shipping). Toulouse, France.[^34]
- 1939, Cycloidal reducer: Sumitomo, Cyclo reducers built at Niihama Works (shipping). Niihama, Japan.[^37]
- 1990, Cable and capstan drive: Barrett Technology, WAM arm with gearless cable drives (shipping). Newton, Massachusetts, United States.[^40]
- 2022-09, Planetary roller screw: Tesla, Optimus humanoid linear actuators on planetary roller screws (demo). Palo Alto, California, United States.[^42]
- 2022, Magnetic gear: Magnomatics, 86 kW magnetically geared motor for eVTOL aircraft (demo). Sheffield, England, United Kingdom.[^45]

## Sources

[^1]: Electrical Engineering Portal, "Induction machines: a historical touch". https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/induction-machines-historical-touch (not opened).
[^2]: Tesla Motors (SEC), "Form S-1 registration statement, 2010". https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/0001318605/000119312510017054/ds1.htm (not opened).
[^3]: Drives & Controls, "Dyson's turbocharged SR motor can phone home". https://cdn765.pressflex.net/news/archivestory.php/aid/1109/.html (not opened).
[^4]: Popular Science, "Dyson's new vacuum driven by the fastest motor ever". https://www.popsci.com/gear-amp-gadgets/article/2009-06/dysons-new-vacuum-driven-fastest-motor-ever/ (not opened).
[^5]: Turntide Technologies (GlobeNewswire), "Turntide Technologies launches new intelligent building solution for sustainable operations". https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/09/09/2294627/0/en/Turntide-Technologies-Launches-New-Intelligent-Building-Solution-For-Sustainable-Operations.html (not opened).
[^6]: Drives & Controls, "Synchronous reluctance motors offer a choice of high outputs or IE4 efficiency". https://cdn765.pressflex.net/news/archivestory.php/aid/3180/.html (not opened).
[^7]: ABB, "IE6 SynRM motors are engineered to outrun the demands of today". https://new.abb.com/news/detail/133960/ie6-synrm-motors-are-engineered-to-outrun-the-demands-of-today (not opened).
[^8]: Magnetics Magazine, "Proterial builds ferrite-magnet motor prototype, adds AI to its toolkit for developing new materials". https://magneticsmag.com/proterial-builds-ferrite-magnet-motor-prototype-adds-ai-to-its-toolkit-for-developing-new-materials/ (not opened).
[^9]: Electrek, "Tesla is going back to EV motors with no rare earth elements". https://electrek.co/2023/03/01/tesla-is-going-back-to-ev-motors-with-no-rare-earth-elements/ (not opened).
[^10]: Renault Group, "All about electric motors with no rare earths". https://renaultgroup.com/en/magazine/energy-and-powertrains/all-about-electric-motors-with-no-rare-earths/ (not opened).
[^11]: eeNews Europe, "Continental supplies powertrain for Renault's e-car Zoe". https://www.eenewseurope.com/en/continental-supplies-powertrain-for-renaults-e-car-zoe/ (not opened).
[^12]: BMW Group, "The first-ever BMW iX3". https://www.press.bmwgroup.com/united-kingdom/article/detail/T0311014EN_GB/the-first-ever-bmw-ix3 (not opened).
[^13]: Venture Capital Access Online, "Conifer secures $20M in seed funding to transform electric powertrains with rare-earth-free design". https://www.vcaonline.com/news/2025041407/conifer-secures-20m-in-seed-funding-to-transform-electric-powertrains-with-rare-earth-free-design-and-software-driven-manufacturing/ (not opened).
[^14]: EVreporter, "Conifer to begin production of rare-earth free motors in Pune". https://evreporter.com/conifer-to-begin-production-of-rare-earth-free-motors-in-pune/ (not opened).
[^15]: Drives and Controls, "US developer raises $20m for magnet-agnostic axial-flux motors". https://drivesncontrols.com/us-developer-raises-20m-for-magnet-agnostic-axial-flux-motors/ (not opened).
[^16]: University of Minnesota College of Science and Engineering, "Niron Magnetics, company that rose from Professor Jian-Ping Wang's research, awarded $17.5M DOE grant". https://cse.umn.edu/node/128911 (not opened).
[^17]: Niron Magnetics, "About Niron Magnetics". https://www.nironmagnetics.com/about (not opened).
[^18]: Chemical Engineering, "Niron Magnetics breaks ground on rare-earth-free magnet manufacturing plant in Minnesota". https://www.chemengonline.com/niron-magnetics-breaks-ground-on-rare-earth-free-magnet-manufacturing-plant-in-minnesota/ (not opened).
[^19]: Interesting Engineering, "1,500 tons of rare-earth-free magnets set for annual US production starting 2027". https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/1500-tons-of-rare-earth-free-magnets-set-for-annual-us-production-starting-2027 (not opened).
[^20]: iMechanica, "Acome, Kellaris, Morrissey, Mitchell, Keplinger: Hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic actuators (Science, 2018)". https://www.imechanica.org/node/22096 (not opened).
[^21]: MIT CSAIL, "HASEL artificial muscles: versatile high-performance actuators for a new generation of life-like robots". https://www.csail.mit.edu/node/5829 (not opened).
[^22]: Soft Robotics Toolkit, "Pelrine et al.: High-speed electrically actuated elastomers with strain greater than 100% (Science, 2000)". https://softroboticstoolkit.com/publications/high-speed-electrically-actuated-elastomers-strain-greater-100 (not opened).
[^23]: University of Wollongong Research Online, "Haines et al.: Artificial muscles from fishing line and sewing thread (Science, 2014)". https://ro.uow.edu.au/aiimpapers/1012 (not opened).
[^24]: UT Dallas News Center, "Researchers create powerful muscles from fishing line, thread". https://news.utdallas.edu/science-technology/researchers-create-powerful-muscles-from-fishing-l (not opened).
[^25]: Scientific Reports, "Work efficiency of coiled polymer fibre actuators (2016)". https://www.nature.com/articles/srep36358 (not opened).
[^26]: National Nanotechnology Coordinated Infrastructure, "The story of Nitinol". https://nnci.net/sites/default/files/2020-02/Story%20of%20Nitinol.pdf (not opened).
[^27]: Counterpoint Research, "SMA OIS cameras ready for bigger smartphone focus". https://www.counterpointresearch.com/insight/sma-ois-cameras-ready-for-bigger-smartphone-focus (not opened).
[^28]: UKTN, "Cambridge Mechatronics raises funding for its smartphone camera technology". https://www.uktech.news/deep-tech/cambridge-mechatronics-smartphone-camera-20240214 (not opened).
[^29]: Machine Design, "Pumping iron (Festo fluidic muscle)". https://www.machinedesign.com/archive/pumping-iron (not opened).
[^30]: Tokyo Institute of Technology, "Tokyo Tech and Bridgestone develop a high-power, hydraulically driven artificial muscle". https://www.titech.ac.jp/english/news/2017/037286 (not opened).
[^31]: R&D World, "Protoclone V1: 1,000 artificial muscles power this sweating robot's human-like moves". https://www.rdworldonline.com/protoclone-v1-1000-artificial-muscles-power-this-sweating-robots-human-like-moves/ (not opened).
[^32]: Fox News, "Creepy humanoid robot moves using 1,000 eerie artificial muscles". https://www.foxnews.com/tech/creepy-humanoid-robot-moves-using-1000-eerie-artificial-muscles (not opened).
[^33]: WCAX (Associated Press), "Boston Dynamics retires original Atlas humanoid robot after more than 10 years". https://www.wcax.com/2024/04/18/boston-dynamics-retires-original-atlas-humanoid-robot-after-more-than-10-years/ (not opened).
[^34]: ICAS 2006 (Airbus, D. van den Bossche), "The A380 flight control electrohydrostatic actuators, achievements and lessons learnt". https://icas.org/ICAS_ARCHIVE/ICAS2006/PAPERS/048.PDF (not opened).
[^35]: HAW Hamburg (DGLR lecture), "A380 flight controls (lecture slides, 2007)". https://www.fzt.haw-hamburg.de/pers/Scholz/dglr/hh/text_2007_09_27_A380_Flight_Controls.pdf (not opened).
[^36]: Airbus, "Flight control system: more redundancy to enhance resilience". https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/stories/2025-07-flight-control-system-more-redundancy-to-enhance-resilience (not opened).
[^37]: Sumitomo Drive Technologies, "Company profile". https://us.sumitomodrive.com/en-us/company-profile (not opened).
[^38]: Plant Automation Technology, "Nabtesco Motion Control: precision reduction gears for wide-ranging support of global frontier industries". https://www.plantautomation-technology.com/suppliers/nabtesco-motion-control-inc (not opened).
[^39]: Sumitomo Drive Technologies, "Our history". https://japan.sumitomodrive.com/en-jp/our-history (not opened).
[^40]: Barrett Technology, "Our history". https://barrett.com/history (not opened).
[^41]: Machine Design, "Actuators tackle the tough jobs (roller screws)". https://www.machinedesign.com/archive/actuators-tackle-tough-jobs (not opened).
[^42]: humanoid.guide, "Linear vs rotary actuators: why Tesla bet on the roller screw". https://humanoid.guide/linear-vs-rotary-actuators-humanoid-joints/ (not opened).
[^43]: REF 2014 impact case study (University of Sheffield), "Magnetic gears and pseudo direct drives". https://impact.ref.ac.uk/CaseStudies/CaseStudy.aspx?Id=9035 (not opened).
[^44]: GOV.UK, "Success story: Magnomatics friction-free gearbox nears production". https://www.gov.uk/government/news/success-story-magnomatics-friction-free-gearbox-nears-production (not opened).
[^45]: Airframer, "Magnetic gear innovators reveal 86 kW motor". https://www.airframer.com/news/story/magnetic-gear-innovators-reveal-86kw-motor (not opened).
[^46]: Greater Houston Partnership, "Houston-area startup evolving NASA's technology (FluxWorks)". https://houston.org/news/houston-area-startup-evolving-nasas-technology (not opened).
[^47]: Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, "An easy-to-implement toolkit to create versatile and high-performance HASEL actuators for untethered soft robots". https://rm.is.mpg.de/publications/keplinger19-as-softrobots (not opened).
[^48]: IMARC Group, "Global induction motor market size anticipated to reach USD 42.9 billion by 2033". https://www.imarcgroup.com/induction-motor-market-statistics (not opened). Paywalled.
[^49]: Knowledge Sourcing Intelligence, "Hydraulic Actuator Market: forecasts from 2024 to 2029 (report listing)". https://www.giikorea.co.kr/report/ksi1521058-hydraulic-actuator-market-forecasts-from.html (not opened). Paywalled.
[^50]: TechSci Research, "Artificial Muscle Market: global industry size, share and forecast (report listing)". https://www.giikorea.co.kr/report/tsci1879300-artificial-muscle-market-global-industry-size.html (not opened). Paywalled.
[^51]: Intel Market Research, "Cycloidal gear reducers market". https://www.intelmarketresearch.com/cycloidal-gear-reducers-market-16796 (not opened). Paywalled.
[^52]: Report Prime, "Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM) market". https://www.reportprime.com/synchronous-reluctance-motor-synrm-r7600 (not opened). Paywalled.
[^53]: DataHorizzon Research, "Electro-hydrostatic actuator market". https://datahorizzonresearch.com/electro-hydrostatic-actuator-market-29564 (not opened). Paywalled.
[^54]: Market Glass (Global Industry Analysts), "Switched Reluctance Motors: global market (report listing)". https://www.gii.co.jp/report/go1798270-switched-reluctance-motors.html (not opened). Paywalled.
[^55]: Transparency Market Research, "Planetary roller screw market". https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/planetary-roller-screw-market.html (not opened). Paywalled.
[^56]: TechSci Research, "Axial Flux Motors Market: global industry size, share and forecast (report listing)". https://giikorea.co.kr/report/tsci1732892-axial-flux-motors-market-global-industry-size.html (not opened). Paywalled.
[^57]: Foundation for American Innovation, "The robot boom has a magnet problem". https://policygradients.thefai.org/p/the-robot-boom-has-a-magnet-problem (accessed 2026-10-25).