---
title: "Leading people in actuators and rare earths"
description: "Who shapes robot actuators and the rare-earth magnet supply chain: researchers, founders, magnet and rare earth executives, analysts and policy leads, each with affiliation, key works and sources."
canonical: https://actuatorlist.com/people
last-updated: 2026-11-11T13:40:47.000Z
---
# Leading people in actuators and rare earths

42 people across four domains: actuator research, actuator and robot companies, rare earth and magnet companies, and analysts and policy. Roles were checked on 2026-11-03. Interactive page with domain filter, affiliation network and map: https://actuatorlist.com/people. JSON: https://actuatorlist.com/api/v1/people.

## Actuator research (12)

| Name | Role and affiliation | Why they matter | Key works | On this site |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Sangbae Kim**[^1][^2][^3] | Robotics architect at Meta, on leave from MIT ([Meta](https://about.meta.com/)) | Led the MIT Cheetah work showing low-ratio proprioceptive actuators can absorb impacts and control force in legged robots. | [Proprioceptive actuator design in the MIT Cheetah (2017)](https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/119863); [Mini Cheetah, the first four-legged robot to backflip (2019)](https://news.mit.edu/2019/mit-mini-cheetah-first-four-legged-robot-to-backflip-0304) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Benjamin Katz**[^4][^3] | Robot designer at Boston Dynamics (as reported in 2021) ([Boston Dynamics](https://bostondynamics.com/)) | Lead developer of the Mini Cheetah and its cheap modular drone-motor actuator, since widely cloned. | [Mini Cheetah and its modular actuator (lead developer) (2019)](https://news.mit.edu/2019/mit-mini-cheetah-first-four-legged-robot-to-backflip-0304); [From cheetah robots to humanoids (MIT News profile) (2021)](https://news.mit.edu/2021/cheetah-noids-humanoids-benjamin-katz-1214) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Atlas (electric) joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=boston-dynamics-atlas) |
| **Patrick Wensing**[^5][^2] | Professor of aerospace and mechanical engineering, University of Notre Dame ([University of Notre Dame](https://www.nd.edu/)) | Lead author of the impact-mitigation analysis behind proprioceptive actuators; now runs Notre Dame's legged robotics lab. | [Proprioceptive actuator design in the MIT Cheetah (2017)](https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/119863) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Gill Pratt**[^6][^7][^8] | CEO, Toyota Research Institute; Chief Scientist, Toyota ([Toyota Research Institute](https://www.tri.global/)) | Co-introduced the series elastic actuator at MIT in 1995, now widely used in force-controlled robot joints. | [Series elastic actuators (with Matthew Williamson) (1995)](https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA299658.pdf) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Jerry Pratt**[^9] | Co-founder, Persona AI ([Persona AI](https://www.personainc.ai/)) | Spent two decades on legged robots at IHMC, was Figure's first CTO and now builds shipyard humanoids. | [Persona AI, humanoids for shipyards (2024)](https://techcrunch.com/2024/06/26/personas-founders-are-certain-the-world-can-use-another-humanoid-robot) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Figure 02 joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=figure-02) |
| **Hugh Herr**[^10][^11] | Professor and head of the Biomechatronics group, MIT Media Lab ([MIT](https://www.mit.edu/)) | Leads MIT's biomechatronics group, whose neural interface lets amputees control powered prosthetic limbs. | [Agonist-antagonist myoneural interface trial (NCT03913273)](https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03913273) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Christoph Keplinger**[^12][^13] | Director, Robotic Materials Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems ([Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems](https://is.mpg.de/)) | Principal inventor of HASEL electrohydraulic artificial muscles and co-founder of Artimus Robotics, which sells them. | [Artimus Robotics, co-founded to commercialise HASEL (2018)](https://cyber-valley.de/en/news/christoph-keplinger-joins-the-max-planck-institute-for-intelligent-systems-as-new-director-cyvy) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Alternatives to NdFeB](https://actuatorlist.com/alts) |
| **Ray Baughman**[^14] | Led the NanoTech Institute at UT Dallas ([UT Dallas](https://www.utdallas.edu/)) | His group showed twisted, coiled fishing line works as a strong thermal muscle, opening cheap polymer actuators. | [Artificial muscles from fishing line and sewing thread (Science) (2014)](https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1246906) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Jonathan Hurst**[^15][^16] | Co-founder and Chief Robot Officer, Agility Robotics; professor, Oregon State ([Agility Robotics](https://agilityrobotics.com/)) | Turned Oregon State's ATRIAS and Cassie leg research into Agility Robotics and its Digit humanoid. | [Agility Robotics, spun out of Oregon State (2015)](https://news.oregonstate.edu/news/osu-spinout-agility-robotics-maker-legged-workplace-robots-secures-20-million-new-investment) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Digit joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=agility-digit) |
| **Alin Albu-Schäffer**[^17][^18] | Director, DLR Institute of Robotics and Mechatronics; professor, TUM ([DLR](https://www.dlr.de/)) | Leads DLR's robotics institute, known for variable impedance joints in compliant arms and hands. | [Variable impedance actuation for new humanoid bodies (DLR) (2011)](https://archive.iar.kit.edu/workshops/humanoids2011/talks/Albu-Schaeffer-Humanoids2011-WS-New-Bodies-for-Humanoids.pdf) |  |
| **Sami Haddadin**[^19][^20] | Vice President for Research, MBZUAI; co-founder, Franka Emika ([MBZUAI](https://mbzuai.ac.ae/)) | Co-founded Franka Emika, maker of the Franka research arm; now leads research at MBZUAI. | [Franka Emika (co-founder)](https://franka.de/) |  |
| **Koichi Suzumori**[^21][^22] | Professor, Institute of Science Tokyo ([Institute of Science Tokyo](https://www.isct.ac.jp/)) | Pioneered thin McKibben muscles and, with Bridgestone, a hydraulic artificial muscle running at ten times usual pressure. | [Hydraulic high-power artificial muscle (with Bridgestone) (2017)](https://www.titech.ac.jp/english/news/2017/037286.html); [Commercialised small-diameter artificial muscles (JSME award) (2020)](https://jsme.or.jp/english/about/awards/2020-2/award2020-nt4) | [Japan supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/japan) |

## Actuators and robots (12)

| Name | Role and affiliation | Why they matter | Key works | On this site |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Wang Xingxing**[^23][^24] | Founder, chairman and CEO, Unitree Robotics ([Unitree Robotics](https://www.unitree.com/)) | Founded Unitree, whose low-priced quadrupeds and humanoids run on joint motors the company makes itself. | [Unitree lists on Shanghai's STAR Market (2026)](https://www.scmp.com/tech/article/3347611/inside-unitrees-landmark-ipo-what-know-about-chinas-humanoid-giant) | [China supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/china), [G1 joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=unitree-g1), [Unitree Robotics in the catalog](https://actuatorlist.com/actuators/unitree-m107) |
| **Jeff Cardenas**[^25][^26] | Co-founder and CEO, Apptronik ([Apptronik](https://apptronik.com/)) | Runs Apptronik, maker of the Apollo humanoid, with close to US$1B raised for industrial deployment. | [Apollo humanoid (2023)](https://www.therobotreport.com/apptronik-ceo-jeff-cardenas-details-the-apollo-humanoid/) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Apollo joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=apptronik-apollo) |
| **Dhanush Radhakrishnan**[^27][^28] | Co-founder and CEO, Clone Robotics ([Clone Robotics](https://clonerobotics.com/)) | Co-founded Clone, which drives a humanoid with water-powered Myofiber artificial muscles instead of motors. | [Clone Alpha, a humanoid on artificial muscles (2025)](https://www.maginative.com/article/meet-clone-alpha-a-humanoid-robot-built-with-synthetic-organs-and-artificial-muscles/) | [Alternatives to NdFeB](https://actuatorlist.com/alts) |
| **Łukasz Koźlik**[^28][^27] | Co-founder and CTO, Clone Robotics ([Clone Robotics](https://clonerobotics.com/)) | Began the McKibben-muscle experiments behind Clone's Myofiber, a single-piece muscle and tendon unit. | [Protoclone V1 design](https://humanoid.guide/?p=12355) | [Alternatives to NdFeB](https://actuatorlist.com/alts) |
| **Bernt Børnich**[^29][^30] | Founder and CEO, 1X Technologies ([1X Technologies](https://www.1x.tech/)) | His company drives the NEO home humanoid with high torque-density motors on tendon transmissions. | [NEO home robot launch (2025)](https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20251027434628/en/1X-Launches-NEO-The-Robot-Redefining-Life-at-Home) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [NEO joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=1x-neo) |
| **Zuo Yuyu**[^31] | Founder and chairman, Leaderdrive ([Leaderdrive](https://www.leaderdrive.com/)) | Built China's largest harmonic reducer maker, the main domestic alternative to Harmonic Drive in robot joints. | [Leader Harmonious Drive Systems founded (2011)](https://e.vnexpress.net/news/tech/personalities/chinese-brothers-behind-robot-joint-maker-leaderdrive-become-billionaires-as-humanoid-demand-surges-5066573.html) | [China supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/china), [Leaderdrive in the catalog](https://actuatorlist.com/actuators/leaderdrive-lhs) |
| **Oh Jun-ho**[^32][^33] | Head of the Future Robotics Office, Samsung Electronics; KAIST professor emeritus ([Samsung Electronics](https://www.samsung.com/)) | Built the HUBO humanoids, co-founded Rainbow Robotics and now leads Samsung's robot programme. | [Samsung becomes Rainbow Robotics' largest shareholder (2025)](https://news.samsung.com/global/samsung-electronics-to-become-largest-shareholder-in-rainbow-robotics); [Elected President of the Korea AI and Robot Industry Association (2026)](https://ifr.org/ifr-press-releases/news/dr-junho-oh-elected-as-new-president-of-kar) | [South Korea supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/korea) |
| **Marc Raibert**[^34] | Executive director, RAI Institute; founder, Boston Dynamics ([RAI Institute](https://rai-inst.com/)) | Founded Boston Dynamics, whose BigDog, Spot and Atlas defined what dynamic legged robots can do. | [Boston Dynamics (founder) (1992)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Raibert) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Atlas (electric) joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=boston-dynamics-atlas) |
| **Josh Pieper**[^35][^36] | Founder, mjbots Robotic Systems ([mjbots](https://mjbots.com/)) | Publishes the open-source moteus controller and quasi-direct-drive actuators used in hobby and research legged robots. | [moteus brushless controller](https://hackaday.io/project/179234-moteus-brushless-controller); [mjbots quad, an open dynamic quadruped](https://hackaday.io/project/167845-mjbots-quad) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [mjbots in the catalog](https://actuatorlist.com/actuators/mjbots-qdd100) |
| **Zhou Jian**[^37] | Founder, chairman and CEO, UBTech Robotics ([UBTech Robotics](https://www.ubtrobot.com/)) | Started UBTech on servo actuators for small humanoids; it now builds the Walker S industrial humanoid. | [UBTech Robotics founded in Shenzhen (2012)](https://www.sz.gov.cn/en_szgov/news/latest/content/post_11247031.html) | [China supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/china), [Walker S2 joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=ubtech-walker-s2) |
| **Gu Jie (Alex Gu)**[^38][^39] | Founder and CEO, Fourier ([Fourier](https://fftai.com/)) | Took Fourier from rehabilitation robots and exoskeletons to the GR-1 and GR-2 humanoids. | [GR-1 humanoid unveiled (2023)](https://yicaiglobal.com/news/20230706-04-chinas-fourier-intelligence-debuts-general-purpose-humanoid-robot-at-world-ai-conference) | [China supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/china), [GR-1 joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=fourier-gr1) |
| **Brett Adcock**[^40][^41] | Founder and CEO, Figure AI ([Figure AI](https://www.figure.ai/)) | Runs Figure, which designs and builds its humanoid actuators in house rather than buying them. | [Figure AI (founder) (2022)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_AI) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Figure 02 joint map](https://actuatorlist.com/humanoids?robot=figure-02) |

## REE and magnets (10)

| Name | Role and affiliation | Why they matter | Key works | On this site |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **James Litinsky**[^42][^43] | Founder, chairman and CEO, MP Materials ([MP Materials](https://mpmaterials.com/)) | Runs the main US rare earth miner and restarted US NdFeB magnet production in 2025. | [US rare earth magnet production restored at Independence (2025)](https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250122740803/en/MP-Materials-Restores-U.S.-Rare-Earth-Magnet-Production); [10X magnet campus in Northlake, Texas (2026)](https://mpmaterials.com/news/mp-materials-selects-northlake-texas-as-the-site-of-10x-a-new-us-rare-earth-magnet-manufacturing-campus/) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Amanda Lacaze**[^44][^45] | Former CEO and managing director, Lynas Rare Earths (2014 to June 2026) ([Lynas Rare Earths](https://lynasrareearths.com/)) | Ran the largest rare earth producer outside China for twelve years, including heavy rare earth supply deals with Japan. | [A$200m Japanese investment for Dy and Tb supply (2023)](https://www.miningweekly.com/print-version/lynas-gets-a-a200m-investment-from-japanese-partners-2023-03-07) |  |
| **Rahim Suleman**[^46][^47] | President and CEO, Neo Performance Materials ([Neo Performance Materials](https://www.neomaterials.com/)) | Opened Neo's sintered magnet plant in Narva, Estonia, a first step towards a European magnet supply. | [Narva permanent magnet plant opens (2025)](https://www.marketscreener.com/news/neo-performance-materials-opens-state-of-the-art-permanent-magnet-facility-in-europe-ce7d58dfdc80f220) |  |
| **Scott Dunn**[^48][^49] | Co-founder and CEO, Noveon Magnetics ([Noveon Magnetics](https://noveon.co/)) | Runs Noveon, described as the only operating US sintered NdFeB maker, which can use recycled magnet scrap as feed. | [Five-year magnet supply agreement with Nidec](https://www.metal-powder.tech/?p=281219) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Jonathan Rowntree**[^50][^51] | CEO, Niron Magnetics ([Niron Magnetics](https://www.nironmagnetics.com/)) | Scaling iron nitride, a magnet with no rare earths, from pilot line to a 1,500 t a year plant. | [Ground broken on the Sartell, Minnesota magnet plant (2025)](https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250929097968/en/Niron-Magnetics-Changes-Game-by-Breaking-Ground-on-Rare-Earth-Free-Magnet-Facility) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us), [Alternatives to NdFeB](https://actuatorlist.com/alts) |
| **Cai Baogui**[^52] | Co-founder, chairman and CEO, JL MAG Rare-Earth ([JL MAG Rare-Earth](https://www.jlmag.com.cn/)) | Chairs and runs JL MAG, a Ganzhou NdFeB magnet maker listed in Shenzhen and Hong Kong. | [Re-elected chairman and appointed CEO (HKEX filing) (2024)](https://www1.hkexnews.hk/listedco/listconews/sehk/2024/0612/2024061201561.pdf) | [China supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/china) |
| **Masato Sagawa**[^53][^54][^55] | Inventor of the sintered NdFeB magnet; adviser to Daido Steel ([Daido Steel](https://www.daido.co.jp/)) | Invented the sintered NdFeB magnet in 1982, the strongest type of permanent magnet in use. | [Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering (2022)](https://qeprize.org/news/nd-fe-b-permanent-magnet-developer-wins-2022-queen-elizabeth-prize-for-engineering); [Sintered Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet (1982)](https://www.japan.go.jp/kizuna/2022/04/magnet_innovation.html) | [Japan supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/japan) |
| **John Croat**[^55][^56] | Co-inventor of the NdFeB magnet at General Motors Research; former Magnequench managing director ([General Motors](https://www.gm.com/)) | Found NdFeB independently at GM by melt spinning, the process GM's Magnequench later commercialised. | [Honda Prize, shared for the neodymium magnet (2023)](https://www.hondafoundation.jp/winner/view_en/1661) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Erik Eschen**[^57][^58] | CEO, VAC Group (VACUUMSCHMELZE and eVAC Magnetics) ([VACUUMSCHMELZE (VAC)](https://vacuumschmelze.com/)) | Leads the German magnet maker that opened a US sintered magnet plant in South Carolina in 2026. | [eVAC magnet plant opens in Sumter, South Carolina (2026)](https://vacuumschmelze.com/02_Pressreleases/2026/2026-07-16_Opening%20Ceremony%20Sumter.pdf) |  |
| **Mark Chalmers**[^59][^60] | President and CEO, Energy Fuels ([Energy Fuels](https://www.energyfuels.com/)) | Added NdPr oxide separation to the White Mesa uranium mill in Utah, in commercial production since 2024. | [Commercial separated NdPr at the White Mesa mill (2024)](https://northernminer.com/news/energy-fuels-begins-commercial-production-of-separated-rare-earths-at-white-mesa/1003868391); [Phase 2 rare earth expansion feasibility study (2026)](https://finviz.com/news/277059/energy-fuels-us-rare-earth-processing-expansion-boasts-lower-than-expected-capex-significant-annual-ebitda-and-among-the-lowest-cost-ndpr-production-in-the-world) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |

## Analysts and policy (8)

| Name | Role and affiliation | Why they matter | Key works | On this site |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **Ryan Castilloux**[^61][^62] | Founder and managing director, Adamas Intelligence ([Adamas Intelligence](https://www.adamasintel.com/)) | His firm's magnet and rare earth demand forecasts are quoted by producers, investors and the press. | [Rare Earth Magnet Market Outlook to 2040](https://www.adamasintel.com/report/rare-earth-magnet-market-outlook-to-2040/) |  |
| **Gracelin Baskaran**[^63][^64] | Director, Critical Minerals Security Program, CSIS ([CSIS](https://www.csis.org/)) | Mining economist whose CSIS work on rare earth processing and export controls is cited by Congress and press. | [Senate HELP subcommittee testimony on the critical minerals workforce (2024)](https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118shrg57243/pdf/CHRG-118shrg57243.pdf) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Tom Lograsso**[^65][^66] | Director, Critical Materials Innovation Hub (US DOE), Ames National Laboratory ([Ames National Laboratory (CMI)](https://www.ameslab.gov/cmi)) | Directs the DOE hub for research on rare earth supply, magnet substitutes and recycling. | [R&D 100 Leader of the Year (2025)](https://www.ameslab.gov/cmi/research-highlights/cmi-director-tom-lograsso-named-2025-r-d-leader-of-the-year); [House Science Committee testimony](https://republicans-science.house.gov/_cache/files/8/0/808fcf3a-be92-4cad-b21c-e86378f5a89d/D9209E1E1FC8252C5AE9D9DD2530AE4DCFB115F5117804B4BF5EA036DFF52BBE.dr.-thomas-lograsso-testimony.pdf) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Tae-Yoon Kim**[^67][^68] | Head of the Critical Minerals Division, International Energy Agency ([IEA](https://www.iea.org/)) | Lead author of the IEA's critical minerals outlooks and head of its Critical Minerals Security Programme. | [Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026 (2026)](https://iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2026) |  |
| **Chen Zhanheng**[^69][^70] | Deputy Secretary-General, Association of China Rare Earth Industry ([Association of China Rare Earth Industry](https://en.cae.cn/cae/html/en/col2061/2021-11/12/20211112206111111110242_1.html)) | A long-standing industry voice on Chinese rare earth policy, quoted on consolidation and export rules. | [International cooperation: Association of China Rare Earth Industry delegation (2021)](https://en.cae.cn/cae/html/en/col2061/2021-11/12/20211112206111111110242_1.html) | [China supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/china) |
| **Neha Mukherjee**[^71][^72] | Senior analyst, rare earths, Benchmark Mineral Intelligence ([Benchmark Mineral Intelligence](https://www.benchmarkminerals.com/)) | Covers rare earth supply, demand and prices at Benchmark; widely quoted on China's 2025 export controls. | [Interview on diversifying rare earth supply (2025)](https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/secure-rare-earths-supply-chain-by-diversifying-sources-expert-neha-mukherjee-as-china-tightens-grip/amp) |  |
| **Kristin Vekasi**[^73][^74] | Mansfield Chair of Japanese and Indo-Pacific Affairs, University of Montana ([University of Montana](https://www.umt.edu/)) | Political scientist on Japan's rare earth strategy after the 2010 embargo; has testified to the US-China Commission. | [Testimony to the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (2022)](https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2022-06/Kristin_Vekasi_Testimony.pdf) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |
| **Morgan Bazilian**[^75][^76] | Director, Payne Institute for Public Policy, Colorado School of Mines ([Colorado School of Mines](https://www.mines.edu/)) | Testifies to Congress on critical minerals and China's hold on rare earth processing. | [State of Critical Minerals Report (first edition) (2023)](https://www.mines.edu/news/all-news/2023/payne-institute-for-public-policy-releases-first-annual-state-of-critical-minerals-report.html) | [United States supply chain](https://actuatorlist.com/us) |

## Shared affiliations

Organisations that connect two or more people here (main or earlier affiliation):

- **MIT**: Sangbae Kim, Benjamin Katz, Patrick Wensing, Gill Pratt, Hugh Herr, Marc Raibert
- **Boston Dynamics**: Benjamin Katz, Marc Raibert
- **Clone Robotics**: Dhanush Radhakrishnan, Łukasz Koźlik
- **Figure AI**: Jerry Pratt, Brett Adcock

## Inclusion criteria

A person is listed when at least one of these holds, with a public source:

- Invented or co-invented an actuator or magnet technology that is in use or under serious development (a highly cited paper, patent family or product).
- Leads (CEO, CTO, founder or head of actuators) an organisation in the supply-chain registry, the catalog or the humanoid map, or one building actuator, magnet or rare-earth capacity.
- Is widely cited as an expert on rare earth or magnet supply by reputable press or government.
- Leads a government programme on critical minerals or robot actuation.

Not listed: private individuals, people known only from social media, and anyone who asks to be removed. Only professional information is shown. To suggest someone, or to change or remove an entry, use the [contact page](https://actuatorlist.com/contact). Headshots are shown only with a clear licence; everyone else gets initials.

## Sources

[^1]: Wikipedia, "Sangbae Kim". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangbae_Kim (not opened).
[^2]: MIT DSpace, "Proprioceptive Actuator Design in the MIT Cheetah (IEEE T-RO, 2017)". https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/119863 (not opened).
[^3]: MIT News, "Mini cheetah is the first four-legged robot to do a backflip". https://news.mit.edu/2019/mit-mini-cheetah-first-four-legged-robot-to-backflip-0304 (not opened).
[^4]: MIT News, "From cheetah-noids to humanoids: Benjamin Katz". https://news.mit.edu/2021/cheetah-noids-humanoids-benjamin-katz-1214 (not opened).
[^5]: University of Notre Dame, "Patrick M. Wensing, personal site". https://sites.nd.edu/pwensing/ (not opened).
[^6]: Toyota Motor Corporation, "Gill A. Pratt, Executive Fellow". https://global.toyota/en/company/profile/executives/fellow/gill_a_pratt.html (not opened).
[^7]: Olin College, "Gill Pratt biography". https://www.olin.edu/bios/gill-pratt (not opened).
[^8]: DTIC, "Series elastic actuators (Pratt and Williamson, 1995)". https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/ADA299658.pdf (not opened).
[^9]: TechCrunch, "Persona's founders are certain the world can use another humanoid robot". https://techcrunch.com/2024/06/26/personas-founders-are-certain-the-world-can-use-another-humanoid-robot (not opened).
[^10]: MIT Media Lab, "Hugh Herr: publications". https://www.media.mit.edu/people/hherr/publications/ (not opened).
[^11]: ClinicalTrials.gov, "Agonist-Antagonist Myoneural Interface for Functional Limb Restoration (NCT03913273)". https://cdn.clinicaltrials.gov/large-docs/73/NCT03913273/ICF_002.pdf (not opened).
[^12]: Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, "Christoph Keplinger". https://is.mpg.de/en/person/ck (not opened).
[^13]: Cyber Valley, "Christoph Keplinger joins the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems as new Director". https://cyber-valley.de/en/news/christoph-keplinger-joins-the-max-planck-institute-for-intelligent-systems-as-new-director-cyvy (not opened).
[^14]: UT Dallas, "Researchers create powerful muscles from fishing line, thread". https://news.utdallas.edu/science-technology/researchers-create-powerful-muscles-from-fishing-l (not opened).
[^15]: Willamette Week, "OSU robotics professor Jonathan Hurst helped create a $2.5 billion company". https://www.wweek.com/technology/2026/03/11/osu-robotics-professor-jonathan-hurst-helped-create-a-25-billion-company-that-makes-humanoid-robots-with-ai-intelligence (not opened).
[^16]: Oregon State University, "OSU spinout Agility Robotics secures $20 million new investment". https://news.oregonstate.edu/news/osu-spinout-agility-robotics-maker-legged-workplace-robots-secures-20-million-new-investment (not opened).
[^17]: Technical University of Munich, "Prof. Dr. Alin Albu-Schäffer". https://www.professoren.tum.de/en/albu-schaeffer-alin (not opened).
[^18]: KIT Humanoids 2011 workshop, "New bodies for humanoids: variable impedance actuation at DLR (slides)". https://archive.iar.kit.edu/workshops/humanoids2011/talks/Albu-Schaeffer-Humanoids2011-WS-New-Bodies-for-Humanoids.pdf (not opened).
[^19]: Wikipedia, "Sami Haddadin". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_Haddadin (not opened).
[^20]: MBZUAI, "Office of Research: about us". https://research.mbzuai.ac.ae/about-us (not opened).
[^21]: Tokyo Institute of Technology, "Hydraulic high-power artificial muscle developed with Bridgestone". https://www.titech.ac.jp/english/news/2017/037286.html (not opened).
[^22]: JSME, "Commercialization of high-quality, high-durability small-diameter artificial muscles". https://jsme.or.jp/english/about/awards/2020-2/award2020-nt4 (not opened).
[^23]: The Wire China, "Wang Xingxing". https://www.thewirechina.com/whos_who/wang-xingxing-%e7%8e%8b%e5%85%b4%e5%85%b4/ (not opened).
[^24]: South China Morning Post, "Inside Unitree's landmark IPO". https://www.scmp.com/tech/article/3347611/inside-unitrees-landmark-ipo-what-know-about-chinas-humanoid-giant (not opened).
[^25]: The Robot Report, "Apptronik CEO Jeff Cardenas details the Apollo humanoid". https://www.therobotreport.com/apptronik-ceo-jeff-cardenas-details-the-apollo-humanoid/ (not opened).
[^26]: Dallas Innovates, "Apptronik nears $1B in total funding". https://dallasinnovates.com/att-ventures-among-new-backers-as-humanoid-robotics-startup-apptronik-nears-1b-in-total-funding/ (not opened).
[^27]: Maginative, "Meet Clone Alpha: a humanoid robot built with synthetic organs and artificial muscles". https://www.maginative.com/article/meet-clone-alpha-a-humanoid-robot-built-with-synthetic-organs-and-artificial-muscles/ (not opened).
[^28]: Humanoid Guide, "Clone Robotics details Protoclone V1 humanoid design". https://humanoid.guide/?p=12355 (not opened).
[^29]: Wikipedia, "1X Technologies". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1X_Technologies (not opened).
[^30]: Business Wire, "1X launches NEO, the robot redefining life at home". https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20251027434628/en/1X-Launches-NEO-The-Robot-Redefining-Life-at-Home (not opened).
[^31]: VnExpress, "Chinese brothers behind robot joint maker Leaderdrive become billionaires". https://e.vnexpress.net/news/tech/personalities/chinese-brothers-behind-robot-joint-maker-leaderdrive-become-billionaires-as-humanoid-demand-surges-5066573.html (not opened).
[^32]: Samsung Newsroom, "Samsung Electronics to become largest shareholder in Rainbow Robotics". https://news.samsung.com/global/samsung-electronics-to-become-largest-shareholder-in-rainbow-robotics (not opened).
[^33]: IFR, "Dr. Junho Oh elected as new President of KAR". https://ifr.org/ifr-press-releases/news/dr-junho-oh-elected-as-new-president-of-kar (not opened).
[^34]: Wikipedia, "Marc Raibert". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Raibert (not opened).
[^35]: Hackaday.io, "mjbots quad: an open-source, affordable, dynamic quadruped robot". https://hackaday.io/project/167845-mjbots-quad (not opened).
[^36]: Hackaday.io, "moteus brushless controller". https://hackaday.io/project/179234-moteus-brushless-controller (not opened).
[^37]: Shenzhen Government Online, "UBTech Robotics and founder Zhou Jian". https://www.sz.gov.cn/en_szgov/news/latest/content/post_11247031.html (not opened).
[^38]: KrASIA, "Fourier Intelligence's founder breaks down what's next for humanoid robots". https://kr-asia.com/fourier-intelligences-founder-breaks-down-whats-next-for-humanoid-robots (not opened).
[^39]: Yicai Global, "Fourier Intelligence debuts general-purpose humanoid robot at World AI Conference". https://yicaiglobal.com/news/20230706-04-chinas-fourier-intelligence-debuts-general-purpose-humanoid-robot-at-world-ai-conference (not opened).
[^40]: Wikipedia, "Figure AI". https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_AI (not opened).
[^41]: Jared Watkins research notes, "Figure AI: in-house actuators and BotQ". https://www.jaredwatkins.com/research/robotics/humanoid/us-companies/figure-ai/ (not opened).
[^42]: MP Materials, "MP Materials selects Northlake, Texas as the site of 10X". https://mpmaterials.com/news/mp-materials-selects-northlake-texas-as-the-site-of-10x-a-new-us-rare-earth-magnet-manufacturing-campus/ (not opened).
[^43]: Business Wire, "MP Materials restores U.S. rare earth magnet production". https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250122740803/en/MP-Materials-Restores-U.S.-Rare-Earth-Magnet-Production (not opened).
[^44]: Mining Weekly, "Lynas Rare Earths CEO to retire after over a decade in role". https://www.miningweekly.com/article/lynas-rare-earths-ceo-to-retire-after-over-a-decade-in-role-2026-01-13 (not opened).
[^45]: Mining Weekly, "Lynas gets an A$200m investment from Japanese partners". https://www.miningweekly.com/print-version/lynas-gets-a-a200m-investment-from-japanese-partners-2023-03-07 (not opened).
[^46]: The Northern Miner, "Neo Performance starts Estonia rare earth magnet plant build under new CEO". https://northernminer.com/news/neo-performance-materials-begins-estonia-rare-earth-magnet-plant-build-under-new-ceo-reins/1003856575 (not opened).
[^47]: MarketScreener, "Neo Performance Materials opens permanent magnet facility in Europe". https://www.marketscreener.com/news/neo-performance-materials-opens-state-of-the-art-permanent-magnet-facility-in-europe-ce7d58dfdc80f220 (not opened).
[^48]: Noveon Magnetics, "About Noveon: leadership". https://noveon.co/about-0 (not opened).
[^49]: Metal Powder Tech, "Nidec and Noveon sign five-year agreement for US-made rare earth magnets". https://www.metal-powder.tech/?p=281219 (not opened).
[^50]: Capital Analytics, "Jonathan Rowntree, CEO, Niron Magnetics". https://capitalanalyticsassociates.com/jonathan-rowntree-ceo-niron-magnetics/ (not opened).
[^51]: Business Wire, "Niron Magnetics breaks ground on rare-earth-free magnet facility". https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250929097968/en/Niron-Magnetics-Changes-Game-by-Breaking-Ground-on-Rare-Earth-Free-Magnet-Facility (not opened).
[^52]: HKEXnews, "JL MAG Rare-Earth: board and CEO appointments (June 2024)". https://www1.hkexnews.hk/listedco/listconews/sehk/2024/0612/2024061201561.pdf (not opened).
[^53]: Queen Elizabeth Prize for Engineering, "Nd-Fe-B permanent magnet developer wins 2022 QEPrize". https://qeprize.org/news/nd-fe-b-permanent-magnet-developer-wins-2022-queen-elizabeth-prize-for-engineering (not opened).
[^54]: Government of Japan (KIZUNA), "Magnet innovation". https://www.japan.go.jp/kizuna/2022/04/magnet_innovation.html (not opened).
[^55]: IEEE Spectrum, "The magnet that made the modern world". https://spectrum.ieee.org/the-men-who-made-the-magnet-that-made-the-modern-world (not opened).
[^56]: Honda Foundation, "Honda Prize 2023 laureate". https://www.hondafoundation.jp/winner/view_en/1661 (not opened).
[^57]: Fastmarkets, "E-Vac to build rare earth magnet plant in South Carolina". https://fastmarkets.com/insights/e-vac-to-build-rare-earth-magnet-plant-in-south-carolina (not opened).
[^58]: VACUUMSCHMELZE, "Opening ceremony of the Sumter, South Carolina magnet plant". https://vacuumschmelze.com/02_Pressreleases/2026/2026-07-16_Opening%20Ceremony%20Sumter.pdf (not opened).
[^59]: The Northern Miner, "Energy Fuels begins commercial production of separated rare earths at White Mesa". https://northernminer.com/news/energy-fuels-begins-commercial-production-of-separated-rare-earths-at-white-mesa/1003868391 (not opened).
[^60]: Finviz (Energy Fuels release), "Energy Fuels US rare earth processing expansion feasibility study". https://finviz.com/news/277059/energy-fuels-us-rare-earth-processing-expansion-boasts-lower-than-expected-capex-significant-annual-ebitda-and-among-the-lowest-cost-ndpr-production-in-the-world (not opened).
[^61]: MINING.COM, "Ryan Castilloux: sorting reality from hype in the crowded rare earth industry". https://www.mining.com/web/ryan-castilloux-sorting-reality-from-hype-in-the-crowded-rare-earth-industry/ (not opened).
[^62]: Adamas Intelligence, "Rare Earth Magnet Market Outlook to 2040". https://www.adamasintel.com/report/rare-earth-magnet-market-outlook-to-2040/ (not opened).
[^63]: CSIS, "CSIS names Gracelin Baskaran Director of Critical Minerals Security Program". https://www.csis.org/news/csis-names-gracelin-baskaran-director-critical-minerals-security-program (not opened).
[^64]: US Government Publishing Office, "Building our critical minerals workforce (Senate HELP subcommittee hearing, June 12, 2024)". https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CHRG-118shrg57243/pdf/CHRG-118shrg57243.pdf (not opened).
[^65]: Ames National Laboratory, "CMI Director Tom Lograsso named 2025 R&D Leader of the Year". https://www.ameslab.gov/cmi/research-highlights/cmi-director-tom-lograsso-named-2025-r-d-leader-of-the-year (not opened).
[^66]: US House Science Committee, "Testimony of Dr. Thomas Lograsso". https://republicans-science.house.gov/_cache/files/8/0/808fcf3a-be92-4cad-b21c-e86378f5a89d/D9209E1E1FC8252C5AE9D9DD2530AE4DCFB115F5117804B4BF5EA036DFF52BBE.dr.-thomas-lograsso-testimony.pdf (not opened).
[^67]: Benchmark Mineral Intelligence events, "Tae-Yoon Kim, Head of Critical Minerals Division, IEA". https://benchmarkevents.benchmarkminerals.com/summit-toronto/speaker/2162420/tae-yoon-kim (not opened).
[^68]: IEA, "Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2026". https://iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2026 (not opened).
[^69]: Chinese Academy of Engineering, "International cooperation: Association of China Rare Earth Industry delegation". https://en.cae.cn/cae/html/en/col2061/2021-11/12/20211112206111111110242_1.html (not opened).
[^70]: The Anchor House, "Interview with Dr. Chen Zhanheng, Chinese Society of Rare Earths". https://www.theanchorhouse.com/?cat=3 (not opened).
[^71]: Benchmark Mineral Intelligence, "Neha Mukherjee, author page". https://source.benchmarkminerals.com/authors/neha-mukherjee (not opened).
[^72]: The Tribune (ANI), "Secure rare earths supply chain by diversifying sources: expert Neha Mukherjee". https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/business/secure-rare-earths-supply-chain-by-diversifying-sources-expert-neha-mukherjee-as-china-tightens-grip/amp (not opened).
[^73]: University of Montana Mansfield Center, "Rare earths and shared futures: Kristin Vekasi". https://www.umt.edu/mansfield/dialogues/mansfield-dialogues/speaker-pages/kristin_vekasi.php (not opened).
[^74]: U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, "Testimony of Kristin Vekasi (2022)". https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2022-06/Kristin_Vekasi_Testimony.pdf (not opened).
[^75]: Council on Foreign Relations, "Critical minerals and China with Morgan Bazilian". https://www.cfr.org/podcasts/critical-minerals-and-china-morgan-bazilian (not opened).
[^76]: Colorado School of Mines, "Payne Institute releases first annual State of Critical Minerals Report". https://www.mines.edu/news/all-news/2023/payne-institute-for-public-policy-releases-first-annual-state-of-critical-minerals-report.html (not opened).